The Chang-E series of missions deployed a broad spectrum of Lunar science investigations, from remote sensing and in-situ measurements to lunar sample return and analysis. Since the Chang-E1 mission, CNSA has successfully launched six lunar exploration missions and brought samples back from the far and near sides of the Moon. It returned a broad harvest of scientific data addressing the formation of the Moon and its geophysical and geological properties, attracting broad interest from the international community. The next two missions, Chang-E 7 and Chang-E 8, are planned to be launched in 2026 and 2028, respectively.
CNSA’s series of deep space missions opened with the Tianwen-1 mission to Mars, launched in July 2020. It successfully achieved orbit, landed, and deployed the Zhurong rover, marking a significant milestone in space exploration. The mission comprises an orbiter and the Zhurong rover, which landed on Utopia Planitia, a large plain in Mars' northern hemisphere. The primary objectives of Tianwen-1 were to investigate the Martian surface, atmosphere, internal structure, magnetic field and geological history. Both the orbiter and rover have collected valuable scientific data, contributing to a deeper understanding of Mars. Its rich harvest of discoveries and their implications for the understanding of Mars will be presented and compared with results from other Mars missions. Tianwen-1 will be followed by two sample return missions: Tianwen-2, which has already been launched and is scheduled to return samples from a near-Earth asteroid in 2027, and Tianwen-3, planned to return samples from Mars.
The LUnar soil Water molecular Analyzer (LUWA) is a payload aboard China's Chang'E-7 mission (to be launched in 2026), which will conduct first in-situ detection of water ice and volatiles within the permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) at the lunar south pole. As the cornerstone of the fourth phase of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program, Chang'E-7 employs a novel multi-probe architecture of an orbiter, lander, rover, and mini-flying probe to explore the rim of Shackleton crater.
Mount on the mini-flying probe, LUWA will analyze volatile components in the lunar soil extracted from both the sunlit area and PSRs. Its primary objectives include: (1) verifying the presence of water molecular and determining its abundance in the lunar regolith, (2) performing elemental and isotopic analyses (e.g., D/H) to determine the origin of lunar volatiles, and (3) investigating distribution, and evolution of water ice in the PSRs.
How to cite: Cao, N., Li, X., and Kan, R.: In-situ detection of water ice and volatiles in lunar permanently shadowed regions, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-2127, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-2127, 2026.
The Moon has a tenuous atmosphere. This exosphere is short-lived due to its interactions with UV radiations and the solar wind, but it is also constantly regenerated. Several sources have been identified (solar wind, bombardment by meteorites). Some gases may also originate from the outgassing of the Moon, as evidenced by the detection of radon by the Apollo missions.
Radon-222 is a radioactive gas produced in the soil by the decay of Ra-226. On Earth, a fraction of radon atoms is released from grains and migrates through soils into the atmosphere. This produces a series of decay products (Pb-210, Po-210, etc.) in the surface environment. Similarly, radon can be released from the lunar soil and diffuse or be advected to the surface. Due to their different mobilities and half-lives, radon and its progeny provide powerful tools for tracing the transport of gases, fluids, and aerosols in the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Since the early stages of the lunar exploration, they have thus been considered as key tracers of the lunar venting and potentially seismic activity. Measurements performed from the orbit (by Apollo 15-16, Lunar Prospector and Kaguya) and on returned samples and equipments have revealed temporal variations and significant differences in their spatial distribution. These variations have been attributed to the presence of degassing spots with variable outgassing intensities.
However, the DORN instrument, which was embarked on the Chang’E 6 spacecraft that landed in the Apollo Crater on the farside of the Moon in June 2024, and which performed the first in situ measurements of these radionuclides on the lunar surface, could not detect any radon, and only traces of polonium, at levels much lower than the “hot spots” detected by Apollo 15-16 and by Lunar Prospector (with activities > 100 Bq.m-2), and much lower than the average values of 15 Bq.m-2 for Po-210 and ~10 Bq.m-2 for Rn-222 measured by the Apollo orbiters. Furthermore, models of radon transport predict average diffusive fluxes that are much larger than those measured by DORN. Finally, the DORN experiment confirms that the Moon — with its significantly lower radon exhalation rate — stands out in comparison to Earth, Mars, and even Mercury, despite the latter's presumed resemblance to the Moon. These results impose new, severe constraints on the diffusive component of radon flux and, consequently, on the physical properties of the regolith. At the conference, we will discuss several hypotheses to explain these discrepancies.
How to cite: Meslin, P.-Y., He, H., Li, J., Chacartegui Rojo, Í. D. L., Gasnault, O., Charpentier, G., Girault, F., Sabot, B., and Kang, Z.: Why does the Moon emit so little radon ? New constraints from the DORN experiment aboard the Chang’E 6 spacecraft, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-14511, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-14511, 2026.
Lunar soils, formed in the absence of a long-lived atmosphere and a global magnetic field, record volatile inputs from both solar-wind implantation and planetary impacts. For most species, including water and noble gases, solar-wind implantation dominates. Nitrogen, however, behaves fundamentally differently. We present stepwise-heating nitrogen measurements of Chang’e-5 and Chang’e-6 lunar soils, providing the first paired mid-latitude samples from the lunar near side and far side. The Chang’e soils show that most trapped nitrogen is supplied by micro-impactor delivery rather than solar-wind implantation. However, when integrated with low-latitude Apollo and Luna datasets, the combined results reveal that spatial variations in nitrogen isotopic compositions across the Moon are primarily controlled by variations in solar-wind flux.
How to cite: Li, Y., Su, F., Zhang, X., Liu, Z., and He, H.: Volatile nitrogen study of Chang’e-5 and Chang’e-6 soils, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-9046, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-9046, 2026.
The origin, distribution, and isotopic fractionation of lunar volatiles remain debated. Lunar soils, lacking a substantial atmosphere and long-term global magnetic field, preserve volatiles mainly from solar wind implantation and exogenous meteorites and comets. Analyses of Chang’e-5 (nearside) and Chang’e-6 (farside) lunar soils offer a unique opportunity to compare these processes across hemispheres. Comprehensive measurements of noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe) in Chang’e-5 and Chang’e-6 soils both show that the regolith cannot be explained as a simple binary mixture of solar wind and cosmogenic components. Kr and Xe isotopes indicate admixtures from cometary and meteoritic sources. Correlations between Kr and Xe isotopes distinguish Chang’e-5 samples from Apollo soils affected by atmospheric contamination, suggesting early Xe escape from Earth and underscoring the interconnected Earth–Moon system. In Chang’e-6 farside soils, Ne isotopes reflect highly fractionated solar wind compositions, while solar wind-derived Kr and Xe distinguish from meteoritic and cometary components. Compared with Chang’e-5 results, these data indicate deeper solar wind implantation on the farside, likely due to nearside deceleration by Earth’s magnetosphere. This hemispheric difference highlights the role of Earth’s magnetosphere in modulating solar wind velocity and shaping the distribution and isotopic diversity of lunar volatiles. Together, Chang’e-5 and Chang’e-6 findings provide new insights into the temporal and spatial evolution of lunar volatiles, mechanisms of Kr and Xe fractionation, and broader Sun–Earth–Moon interactions, with important implications for early Xe escape from Earth, the origin of lunar volatiles, and volatile redistribution in the inner solar system.
How to cite: Zhang, X., Su, F., Li, Y., and He, H.: Hemispheric Variations and Isotopic Signatures of Lunar Noble Gases: Insights from Chang’e-5 and Chang’e-6 Soils, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-6295, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-6295, 2026.
The fundamental questions of when the Moon formed and how long its internal geological activity persisted remain central to planetary science. Recent analyses of returned lunar samples and lunar meteorites have dramatically extended the record of lunar volcanism. Key findings include young mare basalts on the lunar nearside (~2.0 Ga)1, farside basalts (~2.8 Ga)2, a ~2.2 Ga basaltic lunar meteorite3, and crucially, volcanic glass beads indicative of volcanic activity as recent as ~1.2 Ga4. These discoveries collectively point to a Moon with sustained endogenic geological vigor far longer than previously recognized.
To constrain the earliest lunar history, we employ a two-stage Pb isotope evolution model on four precisely dated mare basalt samples with well-defined initial Pb isotopic compositions. Our modeling calculates the timing of mantle source homogenization for these mare basalts to be ~4377 +57/-27 Ma. Extrapolating this model further back in time allows us to estimate the age of the Moon's primary differentiation, which we interpret as the lunar formation time, at ~4516 +21/-18 Ma5.
This study provides chronological constraints from the Moon's late-stage volcanic products to its very origin. The results reconcile a formation time of the Moon within the context of the Giant Impact hypothesis with newly recognized evidence for its extraordinarily prolonged volcanic history.
- Qiu-Li Li, Qin Zhou, Yu Liu et al. 2021. Two-billion-year-old volcanism on the Moon from Chang’E-5 basalts. Nature 600, 54-58.
- Qian W.L. Zhang, Mu-Han Yang, Qiu-Li Li* et al., 2025. Lunar farside volcanism 2.8 billion years ago from Chang’e-6 basalts. Nature, 643:356-360.
- Muhan Yang, Qian W.L. Zhang, Qiu-Li Li* et al. 2025. 2.2-billion-year-old KREEP-rich volcanism on the Moon. Science Bulletin, 70: 3265-3271
- Biwen Wang, Qian W.L. Zhang.. Qiu-Li Li*. 2024. Returned samples indicate volcanism on the Moon 120 million years ago. Science 385, 1077-1080.
- Muhan Yang, Qian W.L. Zhang…Qiu-Li Li*. The Moon’s formation time recorded in lunar mare basalts. Icarus, 447: 116889.
How to cite: Li, Q., Zhang, Q. W. L., Yang, M.-H., and Wang, B.-W.: The life of the Moon, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-6197, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-6197, 2026.
The lunar mantle remains enigmatical due to the absence of unequivocally identified mantle materials. The South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin, as the largest impact structure on the Moon, holds great potential to have excavated lunar mantle materials. The samples returned from the SPA basin by Chang’e 6 (CE6) mission, thus, provide an unprecedented opportunity to search for mantle materials. We report lunar mantle olivine and orthopyroxene hosted in a 4.1-Ga high-alumina CE6 basalt. These mantle crystals with reaction rims are highly magnesian and are in equilibrium with the bulk melt, indicating that they are residues of mantle partial melting occurring at depths of 170–190 km below the Moon's surface. The extreme enrichment of rare earth elements (REEs) in the residual orthopyroxene coupled with a high μ value in the mantle source provides compelling evidence that this farside mantle was metasomatized by potassium, REEs, and phosphorus (KREEP) melt. These mantle mineral residues thus directly demonstrate the presence of KREEP melt on the Moon’s farside. Moreover, the KREEP melt must have migrated downward into the deep mantle before partial melting. This finding suggests that KREEP was likely distributed globally, supporting the existence of a magma ocean on the early Moon.
How to cite: Zhao, K., Xue, Y., Hui, H., Gu, Y., Ouyang, W., Han, Z., Zhang, Y., Lin, Y., Xu, K., Hu, H., Ding, J., Li, Q., Yang, T., Zeng, G., Lu, X., and Wang, R.: KREEP metasomatism directly evidenced by mantle relicts in a 4.1-Ga Chang’e 6 basalt, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-8416, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-8416, 2026.
Understanding the history of lunar volcanism is fundamental to reconstructing the Moon's thermal and chemical evolution. Although lunar mare basalts cover only ~17% of the surface, they archive extensive magmatic activity. Precise eruption ages and durations, coupled with geochemical data, are critical for modeling the flux, scale, and mantle sources of lunar volcanism. China's lunar exploration program has recently returned samples from the nearside (Chang’E-5, CE-5, 2021) and farside (Chang’E-6, CE-6, 2024). High-precision dating of these basalts can define volcanic episodes at each site and test for possible asymmetries in volcanic history between the two hemispheres. While in-situ U–Pb dating offers high precision, its high closure temperature limits its sensitivity to later isotopic resetting by impacts. The ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar system, with its lower closure temperature and greater thermal sensitivity, is better suited for resolving fine-scale thermal histories. We present comprehensive ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar geochronology on basaltic clasts from CE-5 and CE-6 samples. Therefore, we conducted comprehensive ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar geochronological analyses on basaltic clasts from the CE-5 and CE-6 samples. Our preliminary results, integrated with petrography and μCT data, yield eruption ages of ~2021 Ma for CE-5 basalts and ~2792 Ma for CE-6 Low Ti basalt. These ages refine the volcanic timeline at each landing site.
How to cite: Su, F., Zhang, X., Li, Y., and He, H.: ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar Geochronology of Chang’E-5 and Chang’E-6 Basalts, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-6299, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-6299, 2026.
The Chang’e-5 (CE-5) mission returned 2.0 Ga old mare basalts from Oceanus Procellarum, providing critical constraints on late-stage lunar volcanism in the Procellarum KREEP Terrane. However, the genesis mechanism of this relatively late volcanism remain highly debated. Metallic stable isotope systems are sensitive to lunar magma ocean (LMO) solidification, magma differentiation and degassing. Thus, we integrate multiple metal isotope systems, including Fe, Mg, Si, Sr, Cr, Ni, Cu, and Zn, to investigate the nature and evolution of the mantle source feeding young lunar volcanism. The CE-5 basalts exhibit significantly lower Mg# (approximately 35 to 14.5) than Apollo basalts and most lunar meteorites, reflecting extensive fractional crystallization. Correspondingly, isotopic fractionation has been observed in the Cr and Fe isotope systems, with the largest effect recorded in the redox-sensitive element Cr (δ53Cr variations of up to ~0.4 ‰ between the least and most evolved basalts). In contrast, isotope systems primarily influenced by olivine crystallization (Mg, Ni), melt polymerization (Si), or plagioclase fractionation (Sr) display little to no isotopic variation, indicating limited sensitivity to late-stage magma evolution. Combined metal isotope constraints indicate that the CE-5 basalts originated from a mantle source isotopically similar to Apollo low-Ti basalts, but their low Mg# and near-source isotopic compositions on the least evolved basalts require lower degrees of partial melting of an “Apollo-like” low-Ti mantle, except for a deeper depth. Incompatible Moderately Volatile Elements (MVEs) exhibit relatively high abundances with isotopic compositions intermediate to, or slightly lighter than, those of typical lunar basalts, indicating limited volatile loss. Together, these observations indicate that young volcanism in Oceanus Procellarum originated from a mantle reservoir that preserved incompatible elements, particularly MVEs, suggesting that the source experienced little prior melting or melt extraction.
How to cite: Qin, L., Zhang, Y., Shen, J., Wang, Z., Hu, Y., Liu, K., Tang, H., Yu, H., Huang, F., and Carlson, R. W.: Metallic stable isotopic insights into the magmatic evolution of Chang’e-5 samples, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-17701, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-17701, 2026.
Raman spectroscopy is a powerful technique that offers rapid, non-destructive mineralogical and chemical analysis of lunar and planetary surface materials. Raman spectroscopy relies on the inelastic scattering of incident laser light by mineral structures, providing unique vibrational "fingerprints" based on energy shifts in the scattered photons. We conducted a systematic laboratory analysis of the returned Chang’e 5/6 lunar soils by utilizing Raman spectroscopy. We acquired thousands pieces of Raman spectra on lunar soils. In general, we found more than 20 mineral species in the Chang’e 5/6 lunar soils. We demonstrated the mineral chemistries and mineral modes of Chang’e 5/6 lunar soils. More importantly, we discovered the evidence of new minerals (hematite and maghemite) in the Chang’e-6 lunar soils from South Pole-Aitken basin. Those laboratory studies of lunar soils by Raman spectroscopy provide valuable information and solid basis for the forthcoming lunar missions like Chang’e-7, which will conduct the first in-situ Raman spectroscopic survey and geologic studies on the Moon.
How to cite: Ling, Z., Liu, Y., Lu, X., Cao, H., Chen, J., and Liu, C.: Raman spectroscopic studies on lunar samples returned by Chang'e 5/6 missions, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-18254, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-18254, 2026.
Martian sedimentary rocks, sediments, and surface soils contain abundant amorphous and poorly crystalline materials. The formation, preservation, subsequent modification, and stability of these amorphous phases are widely regarded as sensitive indicators of past climatic conditions and near-surface geological environments on Mars. Among the various candidates proposed to account for the amorphous components, Fe-bearing materials represent a particularly important yet underexplored class. Secondary Fe-rich alteration products (e.g., sulfates, phyllosilicates, hydroxides, and carbonates) are prone to strong hydrolysis, resistance to evaporation-driven crystallization, and nanophase formation, all of which favor the development and retention of amorphous or weakly ordered states.
Here, we present results from recent simulation experiments and natural analogue samples from Mars-analog systems. Our investigation integrates three representative systems. (1) Experiments on Fe-rich olivine serpentinization reveal the precipitation of low-crystallinity Fe-Si-rich phyllosilicate materials from derived solutions, highlighting a coupled Fe oxidation and Si redistribution pathway during low-temperature hydrothermal water-rock interaction. Nanophase magnetite is observed to nucleate on the surfaces of these Fe-Si phases. (2) Evaporation and photooxidation of Fe-sulfate solutions produce Fe-sulfate gels and associated assemblages of Fe sulfates and Fe(III) oxides with elevated amorphous components, reflecting redox transformation under acidic, highly oxidizing, and low-water-activity conditions analogous to Martian sulfate-rich environments. (3) Recent work on diagenetically modified jarosite-bearing materials from terrestrial acid-sulfate settings documents distinctive patchy and crustal microtextures, associations with abundant amorphous or poorly crystalline phases. These textures potentially record microscale co-precipitation, dissolution-reprecipitation, and late-stage diagenetic overprinting within acidic sulfate systems.
Across all systems, microstructural, mineralogical, and spectroscopic observations indicate that Fe-bearing amorphous materials are not incidental by-products but integral components of Mars-like alteration pathways, sensitive to fluid chemistry, redox state, and water availability. We propose that such materials represent transient yet information-rich phases on Mars, capable of preserving signatures of aqueous conditions and oxidative processes that may remain cryptic in crystalline assemblages alone.
How to cite: Zhao, Y.-Y. S., Cao, F., Luo, T., and Yu, X.: Exploring Fe-bearing Amorphous Materials in Mars-Analog Samples: Implications for Future Returned Sample Interpretation, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-16617, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-16617, 2026.
The layered architecture of the Martian crust, a central theme in exploration, holds crucial clues to the planet’s geological evolution and environmental history. Our current understanding of this layered structure and its properties stem primarily from in situ geophysical experiments—seismic investigations by NASA’s InSight mission and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys by the Perseverance (NASA) and Zhurong (CNSA) rovers. Seismic data from InSight indicate that the crust at the landing site is approximately 40 km thick, with prominent velocity discontinuities at depths of around 10 km and 20 km, dividing it into distinct upper, middle, and lower layers. The upper crust exhibits finer-scale stratification, including detectable interfaces at about 2 km, 750 m, and within the top 100 m. These features likely record a complex history of alternating magmatic and sedimentary resurfacing processes in the region. At shallower depths, GPR observations highlight pronounced regional variability. In a landmark achievement, the Zhurong rover’s dual-frequency GPR has revealed multiscale layering—from centimeters to tens of meters—within the top 80 m. The smooth gradient in physical properties, together with the dielectric permittivity and attenuation characteristics of these strata, suggests prolonged yet episodic water-assisted sedimentation in the Zhurong landing area from about 3.5–3.2 Ga until as recently as a few hundred million years ago. In contrast, subsurface profiles at other sites bear a stronger signature of magmatic activity: Perseverance’s GPR detected coherent reflective interfaces within the top ~15 m, while a similar shallow structure is observed within the top 100 m at the InSight landing site. These contrasts underscore substantial regional heterogeneity in Martian stratigraphy and geological evolution. Marsquake relocation studies further indicate spatially variable tectonic activity across different regions of present-day Mars. Despite these advances, fundamental questions remain regarding the lateral variability of crustal structure, the relationship between layering and water distribution, deep interior (mantle and core) stratification, and the origin of the hemispheric dichotomy. Addressing these issues will help prioritize objectives for future Mars exploration.
How to cite: Chen, L., Wang, X., Wang, X., Liu, Y., Zhang, J., and Pan, Y.: Crustal Structural Layering and Regional Stratigraphic Variations on Mars, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-16580, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-16580, 2026.
Mars presently has no significant global-scale or dipole-like magnetic field from a source in the deep interior, e.g., a Martian dynamo. However, a strong remnant magnetic field was unambiguously detected above the ancient Martian crust in the southern highlands which indicating an active dynamo in past. Magnetic fields detected by orbiting satellites provided abundant crustal remnant magnetization information with a usual scale larger than ~100 km as magnetic field signals with a smaller wavelength attenuate significantly with increasing altitude. Measurements from the Martian surface (e.g., Zhurong rover and InSight lander) can provide remanent magnetic field information at smaller scales, such as the hundred meter scale. Here in this study, we investigate the crustal magnetic fields at different scales from both satellites and surface observations. The findings cover the potential formation mechanisms of large-scale magnetic stripes on Mars, the magnetic signatures of intermediate- and small-scale impact craters, and the processes of surface small-scale magnetic anomalies. The research outcomes offer supports for advancing our understanding of the evolution of the Martian magnetic fields and its habitability.
How to cite: Du, A., Luo, H., Zhang, K., and Qin, J.: Investigation of multi-scale crustal magnetic fields and their implications for the evolution of Martian dynamo, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-6088, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-6088, 2026.
China’s Tianwen-1 mission successfully landed the Zhurong rover in southern Utopia Planitia on Mars on 15 May 2021, where it conducted in situ investigations of the shallow subsurface between Sol 11 and Sol 333 while traversing a total distance of 1.9 km. During this period, Zhurong deployed, for the first time on Mars, a high-frequency (450–2,150 MHz) quad-polarized ground-penetrating radar system. The high-frequency radar investigations were carried out by the Zhurong radar research team at the Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, in collaboration with the State Key Laboratory of Space Weather, National Space Science Center, State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
The Martian subsurface preserves geological and climatic records that are largely inaccessible to surface observations alone. These surveys produced ultra-shallow subsurface images spanning depths from 0 to 7 m with a vertical resolution of up to ~5 cm across four polarization channels, enabling unprecedented characterization of the near-surface structure. The high-resolution radar images reveal centimeter-scale layered sediments, buried impact craters, three distinct shallow subsurface units, and regionally extensive northward-dipping structures in southern Utopia Planitia. In addition, the data provided the first measurements of polarization-dependent anisotropy in Martian subsurface materials, along with dielectric permittivity profiles derived from the HV and HH polarization modes. The stratigraphic architectures and geometries of these features are consistent with deposition and modification in aqueous environments during the middle to late Amazonian period （~750 Ma）. Together, these observations indicate that liquid-water-related processes persisted in this region later than previously recognized, extending constraints on the duration of middle-late Amazonian aqueous activity and providing new insights into the recent geological and climatic evolution of Mars.
How to cite: Liu, Y., Yan, T., and Qin, X.: Polarimetric radar evidence for middle–late Amazonian aqueous activity in Utopia Planitia, Mars, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-4703, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-4703, 2026.
As a core component of the Martian climate system, dust activity not only profoundly shapes the Martian surface morphology but also influences key processes such as atmospheric mass exchange on Mars. Due to the low atmospheric pressure on Mars, sand and dust on its surface are easily lifted by wind, forming dust events of varying scales. Remote sensing observations of Mars before and after dust activity reveal that some surface areas become covered by fine-grained dust, weakening surface textures or leaving traces of wind-driven dust transport. Long-term dynamic monitoring of Martian remote sensing images helps characterize the Martian dust activity.
On July 23, 2020, China's Tianwen-1 Mars probe was successfully launched. It performed a Mars orbit insertion maneuver on February 10, 2021, and successfully landed in the southern part of the Utopia Planitia in the northern hemisphere of Mars on May 15 of the same year. After landing, the area was affected by the retropropulsion rocket, exposing dark rocks buried under the surface dust. The multi-temporal remote sensing image dataset provides valuable materials for analyzing the fresh surface of the Utopia Planitia region, facilitating a deeper understanding of the dust activity characteristics in this area.
This presentation will elaborate on the latest advancements derived from remote sensing observations and delve into the distinctive features of dust activity in the Utopia Planitia region.
How to cite: Li, Z., Liu, J., Tian, R., Zhang, Q., Chen, Z., Yan, W., Liu, Y., Zhang, Z., Liu, D., Zhang, H., and Li, C.: Dust Activities of the Utopia Planitia, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-6118, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-6118, 2026.
The global distribution and stratigraphy of Martian near-surface water ice are critical for understanding the planet’s hydrological evolution and for planning future in-situ resource utilization. While ice is well-documented in polar and high-latitude regions, its presence and stability at lower latitudes remain a key open question. China’s Tianwen-1 mission, which landed the Zhurong rover in southern Utopia Planitia, provides a unique opportunity to investigate this. The landing site lies within a region bearing extensive geomorphological evidence (e.g., lobate debris aprons, polygons) suggestive of a complex aqueous and glacial past, making it a prime candidate for detecting preserved subsurface volatiles.
The Zhurong rover is equipped with the Mars Rover Penetrating Radar (RoPeR), a low-frequency ground-penetrating radar operating in the 15-95 MHz range. By analyzing the propagation delay, amplitude, and frequency dispersion of reflected signals, RoPeR can reconstruct subsurface stratigraphy and constrain the electromagnetic properties of buried materials. During its traverse, Zhurong’s RoPeR detected a distinct, laterally continuous layer at a depth of several meters. This layer is approximately 7 meters thick and is characterized by remarkably low electromagnetic signal attenuation, bounded above and below by materials exhibiting higher losses.
Quantitative analysis of the radar signals yields a low loss tangent of 0.0030 ± 0.0018 and a dielectric constant of ~3.86 for this discrete layer. These values are inconsistent with dry, porous regolith or typical basaltic rocks but align closely with the expected properties of low-loss, low-density water ice or ice-rich regolith at Martian conditions. To test this interpretation, we performed extensive forward modeling to simulate radar wave propagation through various plausible subsurface scenarios. We constructed models with differing lithologies (dry sediments, porous rocks), stone abundances, bulk densities, and volumetric ice contents.
Our simulations demonstrate that models of a layer composed of "dirty ice", a mixture of water ice (estimated at 30-70% by volume) with dispersed lithic fragments and regolith, best reproduce the observed radar signal’s amplitude, two-way travel time, and low attenuation characteristics. Alternative models involving very dry, highly porous materials or layered fractured rock fail to simultaneously match the derived electromagnetic parameters and layer geometry.
The identification of this potential ice-bearing layer at low-to-mid latitudes (~25°N) in Utopia Planitia has significant implications. It suggests that remnant ice from past climatic obliquity cycles may be preserved at shallow depths in specific, protected geological settings. If confirmed, such a reservoir would represent a highly accessible resource for future crewed exploration, potentially simplifying mission architectures. This finding from RoPeR provides the first direct geophysical evidence pointing at substantial, localized subsurface ice reserves outside Mars’s classical high-latitude ice stability zones, offering a new target for understanding the planet’s water inventory and stability history.
How to cite: Xu, Y., Giannakis, I., Meng, X., Zhang, L., Bugiolacchi, R., and Zhao, J.: Constraints on Shallow Subsurface Water Ice in Southern Utopia Planitia from Mars Rover Penetrating Radar, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-15381, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-15381, 2026.
The Mars Ion and Neutral Particle Analyzer (MINPA), one of the seven scientific payloads aboard the Tianwen-1 orbiter, was specifically designed to investigate the interaction between the solar wind and Mars by measuring ions and energetic neutral atoms (ENAs). This presentation provides a comprehensive overview of MINPA's in-flight operations and its ENA observations from 2021 to 2025. MINPA successfully collected ENA data during observations of the solar wind, magnetosheath, and magnetotail. The in-flight performance was carefully analyzed, including energy and angular response, seasonal variations in the ENA counts, and secondary ENA caused by ion-neutralization on the spacecraft surface. Statistical analysis of solar wind H-ENAs revealed a neutralization rate at the flanks of the Martian magnetosphere, which was used to derive the coincident Jeans escape rate and pick-up ion generation rate. Preliminary results also include the asymmetry of the ENA scattering associated with the crustal magnetic field and the intense enhancement of the ENA signal during CMEs.
How to cite: Li, W., Ma, J., and Kong, L.: Tianwen-1/MINPA operations and ENA science results, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-15474, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-15474, 2026.
In 2026, China's Tianwen-2 mission is scheduled to arrive at the near-Earth asteroid 469219 Kamoʻoalewa (also known as 2016 HO3) to conduct close-range detection and sample return operations. The Tianwen-2 spacecraft carries the Asteroid Core Scan Radar (ACSR), a dual-frequency radar capable of both penetration and imaging. During the hovering phase, the ACSR will utilize Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar observations to characterize the dielectric properties and internal structure of the asteroid.
In contrast to other planetary orbiting radars, such as the MARSIS on Mars, the operational environment of the ACSR differs. Firstly, Kamoʻoalewa features a small radius (~40-100 m) and a short rotation period (~0.467 h) compared to Mars. Thus, unlike an orbital observation of a large-scale target such as Mars, the ACSR continuously illuminates a rotating asteroid, resulting in more complex, time-varying scattering conditions. Secondly, due to the ACSR's close-range observation altitude (~600 m), the spherical nature of the antenna's radiated field cannot be ignored. Finally, given the small size of the target, the strong surface clutter may overlap the weaker subsurface echoes from the asteroid’s subsurface. Therefore, an effective and precise surface clutter suppression is essential for revealing the internal structure of Kamo'oalewa.
In this study, we will present the simulation, separation, and analysis based on the working circumstances of the ACSR. To address the complex surface conditions, the proposed surface clutter simulation is based on a physical optics method and considers the curvature of the spherical wavefront. Besides, a joint cross-correlation and moment-matching procedure is deployed to calibrate the potential orbital fluctuations. Our result shows that this approach works well in separating internal signals from radar observations. It will provide essential support for the radar data processing and scientific interpretation of the upcoming Tianwen-2 mission.
How to cite: Zhang, Z., Su, Y., Guan, W., Li, Z., Liu, D., Zhang, H., and Li, C.: The asteroid surface clutter simulation and separation based on the Asteroid Core Scan Radar of the Tianwen-2 mission, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-6142, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-6142, 2026.
Multiple lines of evidence have confirmed that volatile activity during the Amazonian period of Mars was driven by obliquity oscillates, but supporting geomorphological evidence is lacking in the Martian low-latitude regions. Pitted-wall craters (PWCs), which are a set of craters whose interior walls host single or clusters of pits that share raised rims, comparable sizes (hundred meters) and equator-facing aspects, could be related to volatile activity and may fill the evidence gap. Based on the images acquired by Tianwen-1 High Resolution Imaging Camera (HiRIC) and HiRIC-derived DEMs, this study conducted quantitative characterization of 473 PWCs and 827 pits in the region, and constrained the formation age of the structures by combining crater size-frequency distribution (CSFD) analysis of degraded impact craters. The results show that the pits exhibit complex morphology, gentle slopes, a strict equator-facing orientation and uniform depth, suggesting a formation mechanism related to late-Amazonian volatile activity. Considering the regional geological background, we infer that water was likely the volatile responsible for forming the PWCs. This finding implies that during the Late Amazonian, the Zhurong landing region still had the materials and conditions needed to form large-scale, volatile-related landforms.
How to cite: Zhao, Y., Zhao, J., Xia, M., and Xiao, L.: Recent volatile processes in Martian low-latitudes revealed by pitted-wall craters in the Zhurong landing region, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-19795, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-19795, 2026.
The upcoming Chang'e-7 (CE-7) mission, targeting a launch in 2026, will perform unprecedented exploration of the lunar south pole. A key scientific objective is to investigate the origin and characteristics of lunar surface magnetic anomalies, which hold critical information about the Moon's internal thermal evolution and past dynamo activity.
To achieve high-precision measurements, a dual-sensor tri-axial fluxgate magnetometer has been developed for this mission. This instrument will be deployed on the CE-7 rover to conduct in-situ surveys. Its design focuses on achieving an ultra-low noise level, enabling the detection of weak magnetic fields with high sensitivity. This capability is essential for mapping the fine-scale structure of magnetic anomalies and distinguishing between remnant crustal magnetization and fields induced by other mechanisms.
The primary scientific goals are to: 1) map the spatial distribution of magnetic fields at the south pole with high resolution, constrain the intensity and temporal evolution of the Moon's paleomagnetic field by analyzing the remanent magnetism of surface materials; 2) probe the lunar internal structure by analyzing the induced magnetic field response generated by the changing interplanetary magnetic field penetrating the Moon, which can reveal the electrical conductivity distribution of the lunar crust and mantle; 3) study how local magnetic fields modulate the surface space environment, potentially forming "mini-magnetospheres" that influence solar wind bombardment and volatile preservation through jointed space-Moon observations by combining surface magnetic field data from the rover with measurements from the orbiter’s magnetometer.
The findings from this investigation are expected to provide groundbreaking insights into the lunar internal structure and the history of the core dynamo, directly addressing fundamental questions in planetary science.
How to cite: Ge, Y., Du, A., Sun, S., Zhang, Y., Luo, H., Zhao, L., Li, Z., Huang, C., Shan, L., Wang, L., Zhang, K., Fan, J., Liu, T., Wang, L., Geng, H., Chen, Y., Xue, C., Zou, Y., Pan, Y., and Di, Q.: Lunar Surface Magnetic Field Investigation of the Chang'e-7 Mission: Scientific Objectives and Instrumentation, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-17572, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-17572, 2026.
Global interest in lunar exploration has seen a notable resurgence, as reflected in upcoming missions such as NASA's Farside Seismic Suite, the Lunar Geophysical Network, China's Chang’e-7 and Chang’e-8 missions. These missions are expected to provide key observational data to advance our understanding of the Moon's internal structure. In anticipation of this new era, we have re-explored the Apollo seismic records using advanced analysis techniques and provided valuable insights for interpreting future lunar seismic datasets. We first report the discovery of a new type of long-period lunar seismic signal (LPS), which existed every lunar night from 1969 to 1976 with periods ~470-580 s. Analysis suggests that this signal might not be a natural physical phenomenon but related to a cyclic heater within the instrument. The harsh environmental conditions and instrument/spacecraft operations generate diverse “glitches” that hinder robust seismic data processing and interpretation. We then develop a series of AI-enabled methods for glitch detection, removal, and long-term time-frequency analysis. We have mapped the occurrence patterns of acceleration-related glitches, revealed the optimal windows for lunar seismic observation, and discovered glitches associated with lunar eclipses as well as shadows from nearby instruments. These findings provide practical guidance for instrument deployment and seismic observation strategies in upcoming lunar missions. To further address data quality challenges, we have developed an automated algorithm for the detection and removal of glitch signals in lunar seismic data, which successfully recovered LPS in Apollo records that were previously obscured by contamination, and characterized a kind of short-period signal with varying periods from 6 to 12 seconds. Our results demonstrate strong capability for retrieving weak, low-frequency signals, highlighting the potential for future lunar seismic experiments targeting valuable low-frequency phenomena such as free oscillations and even gravitational waves. This suite of studies and methodological developments is broadly applicable to future lunar and other planetary seismic observations, facilitating efficient analysis and interpretation.
How to cite: Li, J., Liu, X., Xiao, Z., and Shi, Z.: Re-exploring Apollo Lunar Seismic Data: New Insights for the Chang’e-7 Mission, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-21350, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-21350, 2026.
Volatiles refer to low-boiling-point elements and compounds, such as noble gases, N2, H2O, H2S, NH3, CO2, etc. It is widely accepted that the lunar interior contains very few volatiles. However, due to billions of years of asteroid/comet impacts and solar wind implantation, volatiles exist on the lunar surface, though their abundance remains unknown. The volatiles in lunar regolith can not only indicate the distribution and migration of volatiles in the solar system but also provide information on the composition and content of exogenous volatiles acquired by the Earth after the formation of the Earth-Moon system. This serves as a crucial parameter for studying early Earth evolution and the development of Earth’s habitability. Furthermore, volatiles are potential future resources. For example, water can not only sustain life-support systems in deep space exploration but can also be electrolyzed into hydrogen and oxygen, serving as energy and fuel for such missions. Therefore, volatiles have become a key focus in deep space exploration. The "Lunar Regolith Volatiles Analyzer" in the Chang‘e-7 mission will be installed on the rover. Scheduled for launch in 2026, it will work in coordination with the rover’s robotic arm to quantitatively collect and perform heating measurements on lunar regolith samples. It aims to detect and quantify volatiles and water ice in small cold traps within the illuminated regions of the lunar south pole.
How to cite: He, H., Liu, Z., and Li, J.: Lunar volatiles exploration, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-15858, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-15858, 2026.
Surface coatings and weathering textures on Martian rocks offer critical insights into recent surface-atmosphere interactions, transient water activity, and the potential for habitable microenvironments. As part of China’s Tianwen-1 mission, the Zhurong rover landed in southern Utopia Planitia (25.1°N, 109.9°E). This study investigates the spectral and morphological properties of surface rocks observed along Zhurong’s traverse, with the aim of constraining the formation mechanisms responsible for observed features. Although in situ reflectance spectra exhibit limited compositional diversity, Zhurong identified distinctive surface textures, including shallow surface-confined pits, exfoliated flakes, and thin coatings. These features point to the role of salt weathering processes during post modification under present day Martian conditions. We propose a multi-stage alteration model involving aeolian dust deposition and electrostatic aggregation, followed by hydration-driven processes such as salt deliquescence, brine formation, and cementation. Environmental conditions derived from the Mars Climate Database support the possibility of transient relative humidity peaks sufficient for salt activation and brine cycling. Comparative observations from Jezero crater reinforce the broader relevance of these mechanisms across Mars. These features not only reflect ongoing surface alteration processes but also represent promising targets for biosignature preservation and astrobiological investigation.
How to cite: Liu, Y. and Wu, X.: Zhurong Rover Reveals Salt Weathering-Driven Surface Modification by Transient Brine Activity on Mars, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-12166, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-12166, 2026.
The absolute age of the Moon’s largest impact basin, the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin, remains unconfidently constrained due to the absence of datable materials directly linked to its formation. Basaltic magma can erupt on the Moon’s surface only after an impact event has sufficiently thinned the thick lunar crust. Therefore, identifying the oldest basalts in the SPA basin could provide key constraints on the its formation age. We report the oldest basalt yet returned, dated at 4.341±0.003 Ga, from the SPA basin sampled by the Chang’e 6 mission. Eruption of this high-alumina basaltic magma requires an extremely thin crust, which must have occurred within an impact basin exceeding 800 km in diameter. Only the SPA basin satisfies both crater scale and basaltic eruption age. Consequently, this basalt age yields a tight lower age limit for the SPA basin. Accounting for impact melt solidification timescale, the SPA basin formed at 4.37±0.03 Ga. Furthermore, trace element and Pb isotopic compositions of this basalt suggest a relatively fertile mantle source barely melted by the SPA-forming impact. This fertile source indicates that lunar interior may have remained partially molten before impact, thereby preventing it from extensive impact-induced melting, a mechanism supported by numerical simulations. Our results suggest that the SPA-forming impact may have limited effects on mantle structure and composition in the Moon.
How to cite: Hui, H., Zhao, K., Zhang, Y., Gu, Y., Xue, Y., Xu, R., Han, Z., Ouyang, W., Chen, Y., Yang, Z., Guan, Y., Hu, H., Xiao, Z., Yang, T., Li, Q., Wang, X., and Lu, X.: Ancient age of the South Pole-Aitken basin evidenced by the oldest returned lunar basalt, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-16202, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-16202, 2026.
Remote sensing has identified water-ice in the Moon’s polar regions; however, it cannot directly verify the existence and origin of lunar water in the permanently shadowed regions. The LUnar soil Water molecular Analyzer (LUWA) is a key payload on the mini-flying probe of China’s forthcoming Chang’E-7 mission, scheduled for launch in 2026. The mission aims to perform the first in-situ detection of water ice and volatiles of the lunar south pole. LUWA comprises a tunable laser spectrometer (TLS) for in situ analysis of H₂O and HDO, as well as a time-of-flight mass spectrometer (TOF-MS) for the analysis of gas molecules with mass numbers under 200 amu, including H₂O, CO2 and CH₄. A differential absorption spectrometer (DAS) will be mounted on the leg of the probe to pre-detect the existence of water-ice and monitor its content during drilling. Ground testing demonstrates LUWA’s capability to detect water ice at concentrations as low as 0.01 wt% in evolved gas analysis mode and ≥0.5 wt% through DAS, with water content quantification achievable within the 0.1–4.5 wt% range and δD precision of ±50‰. Key challenges include correcting sublimation losses, adsorption effects, and isotopic fractionation during sample handling. LUWA will provide critical data on the abundance, origin, and distribution of lunar water, supporting future in-situ resource utilization and enhancing our comprehension of volatile dynamics on the Moon.
How to cite: Li, X., Cao, N., and Kan, R.: In-situ Detection and Quantitative Analysis Methods for Lunar Water Ice in PSRs, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-2125, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-2125, 2026.
Ferroan anorthosites (FANs) reflect the nature of the Moon’s crust formed during the late-stage lunar magma ocean (LMO). Remote sensing suggests a hemispheric dichotomy in crustal composition, with the farside anorthositic highlands being more magnesian than the nearside. Lacking direct compositional and chronological constraints from farside anorthosites, whether this crustal dichotomy reflects asynchronous LMO solidification or post-LMO crustal reworking remains uncertain. Here we present the first integrated petrological, geochemical, and geochronological study of farside anorthosite clasts returned by the Chang'e-6 mission. These clasts exhibit both mineralogical and compositional similarity with nearside Apollo FANs, supporting a globally homogeneous LMO-derived primary crust. A zircon-bearing anorthosite domain contains recrystallised plagioclase enriched in rare earth elements (REE), thorium, and phosphorus, suggesting thermal reworking and metasomatism by a KREEP (potassium, REE, and phosphorus)-rich Mg-suite intrusion. High-precision lead-lead dating of zircon constrains this reworking event to 4,410 ± 8 Ma, establishing the first lower bound for farside LMO solidification. These findings reveal a near-synchronous LMO solidification prior to 4.41 Ga and help to further understand the origin of the crustal dichotomy and the Moon’s early differentiation history.
How to cite: Wang, Z.: Chang’e-6 farside anorthosites reveal globally homogeneous lunar magma ocean solidification, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-10132, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-10132, 2026.
China’s upcoming deep-space sample return missions, Tianwen-2 and Tianwen-3, will provide unprecedented opportunities to investigate the origin, evolution and preservation of organic matter beyond Earth. A critical challenge for these missions is not only the detection of organics, but also the interpretation of their molecular signatures under complex thermal and geological histories. Here we present how recent advances in molecular-scale characterization of organic carbon in extreme terrestrial and extraterrestrial analogues can inform scientific strategies for these future missions.
We integrate results from three complementary research directions: (1) abyssal hydrothermal systems on Earth, (2) Martian meteorite Tissint, and (3) terrestrial hot-spring sinters as Mars analogues. Using metabolomics-inspired molecular networking , we show that hydrothermal alteration drives a systematic molecular evolution from simple reduced carbon to increasingly functionalized, heteroatom-rich compounds. Stepwise pyrolysis GC–MS and algorithmic spectral deconvolution applied to the Tissint meteorite reveal strong thermal–spatial heterogeneity of indigenous insoluble organic matter, indicating high-temperature synthesis linked to impact-related hydrothermalism and magmatism on Mars. Parallel studies of siliceous hot spring sinters further demonstrate how distance from hydrothermal centers controls the preservation state of recalcitrant organic molecules under Mars-like extreme conditions.
Together, these findings provide a framework for interpreting organic signals in returned samples: (i) distinguishing indigenous organics from contamination through molecular-network fingerprints, (ii) reconstructing thermal histories using molecular structural distributions, and (iii) identifying sampling contexts most favorable for preserving primitive or prebiotic compounds. These insights are directly relevant to the scientific planning of Tianwen-2 asteroid samples and the forthcoming Tianwen-3 Mars sample return mission, particularly for strategies targeting life-marker detection, sample triage, and laboratory analytical protocols after return.
Our work demonstrates how Earth-based extreme analogues and meteorite studies can serve as a methodological and conceptual bridge between current remote/in-situ observations and the next era of Chinese deep-space sample science.
How to cite: Xu, H. (., Lin, W., Zhang, W., Liu, Q., and Jin, Z.: From extreme terrestrial analogues to returned samples: Implications of organic carbon evolution for China’s Tianwen-2 and Tianwen-3 missions, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-21841, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-21841, 2026.
The Chang’e-7 mission targets the lunar south pole, where complex stratigraphy and potential ice–regolith interfaces impose significant challenges for radar interpretation. To enhance detection depth and dynamic range, the mission’s Lunar Penetrating Radar (LPR) employs a pseudo-random coded transmission scheme with pulse compression, representing a significant departure from the carrier-free impulse systems of Chang’e-3 and Chang’e-4 . However, this transition introduces substantial simulation challenges: unlike simple impulses, the Chang’e-7 waveforms consist of extended Manchester-encoded Golay complementary sequences designed to shift spectral energy and suppress sidelobes . Simulating the transmission of these long-duration coded trains directly in time-domain solvers is computationally prohibitive, as the expanded time window drastically increases the required iteration steps. Moreover, standard approximations using simple wavelets fail to capture the specific spectral shaping and decoding characteristics inherent to the new hardware design.
To address these issues, this study proposed an efficient simulation framework based on the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method in gprMax. By treating the radar–subsurface interaction as a linear time-invariant (LTI) system, the proposed approach separated the electromagnetic propagation from the signal modulation. First, the system impulse response was extracted using a short-duration excitation. Subsequently, a software-defined signal processing module synthesized Manchester-encoded Golay complementary sequences to replicate the specific spectral shifting characteristics observed in the instrument’s design. These sequences were convolved with the impulse response and processed via the instrument's hybrid sampling logic to reconstruct wideband echoes . Finally, matched filtering and coherent accumulation were applied to achieve pulse compression. This strategy substantially reduced computational costs while maintaining high temporal–spectral fidelity and physical interpretability. Validation using a 2D numerical model with layered media and subsurface targets confirmed that weak reflections, initially masked by strong direct waves, became distinguishable after decoding. These findings demonstrated that the impulse-response synthesis approach captured the essential operating characteristics of the Chang’e-7 LPR, providing a practical numerical tool for data interpretation and parameter optimization in the complex lunar polar environment.
How to cite: Huang, J., Ma, T., and Wang, S.: Numerical Simulation of the Chang’E-7 Pseudo-Random Coded Lunar Penetrating Radar Data Using gprMax, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-3799, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-3799, 2026.
The Chang'E-4 mission, the first soft-landing on the lunar far side, provides an unprecedented opportunity to probe the subsurface structure of the Von Kármán crater within the South Pole-Aitken basin. The Yutu-2 rover carries a ground-penetrating radar (GPR) instrument, operating at central frequencies of 60 MHz (Channel-1) and 500 MHz (Channels-2A & 2B). The GPR antennas actively probe the shallow lunar stratigraphy, retrieving information on the dielectric properties of subsurface materials. These properties are intrinsically linked to lithology and geochemical composition, offering a direct window into lunar geological evolution.
A key to interpreting these radar reflections is the influence of ilmenite (FeTiO₃), a prevalent mineral in both lunar soils and mare basalts. Unlike most lunar minerals, ilmenite exhibits strong frequency-dependent dielectric behaviour, acting as an electromagnetic dispersive medium. Laboratory measurements demonstrate that signals propagating through ilmenite-bearing materials experience a frequency-downshift effect, where the central frequency of the radar pulse is attenuated in proportion to the ilmenite abundance. This physical relationship transforms the GPR’s frequency attributes into a quantitative proxy for ilmenite content.
In this study we analyse data from both GPR antennas. By applying time-frequency analysis to the radargrams, we extract the spectral characteristics of reflected signals to construct a vertical profile of inferred ilmenite content. Our results reveal a clear stratigraphic sequence of multiple basalt layers, delineated by distinct shifts in central frequency.
We identify three principal volcanic episodes within the probed stratigraphy. The deepest detected units correspond to an initial phase of high-ilmenite magmatism. This is overlain by a substantial sequence characterized by formations with significantly lower ilmenite content, indicative of a distinct geochemical source or evolving magmatic conditions. The uppermost major unit marks a return to higher ilmenite content, signifying a final phase of volcanism enriched in titanium and iron.
This resolved stratigraphy i.e. high, followed by low, followed by high ilmenite abundance, provides critical in-situ constraints for models of lunar volcanic history. The Chang'E-4 GPR data thus offer the first continuous, deep subsurface geochemical profile from the lunar far side, directly linking geophysical remote sensing with the magmatic evolution of the Moon.
How to cite: Giannakis, I., Xu, Y., Su, Y., Zhou, F., and Ding, C.: Mapping the Lunar Volcanic Stratigraphy in the Chang'E-4 Landing Site: Evidence for Episodic Ilmenite-Rich Magmatism, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-6043, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-6043, 2026.
The successful return of samples by the Chang’E 5 and Chang’E 6 missions of the China National Space Administration (CNSA) marks an important milestone for lunar science, offering unprecedented access to a new set of samples from young mare basalts and far-side regolith. This study builds upon the scientific legacy of the DORN (Detection of Outgassing RadoN) instrument onboard Chang’E 6, which performed the first in-situ radon measurements on the Moon. It aims to connect orbital and in-situ measurements with laboratory analysis of lunar regolith.
We present a study investigating the mechanisms governing radon dynamics in the regolith and at the regolith-exosphere interface, including production (emanation) and transport (adsorption). Conducted at the Laboratoire National Henri Becquerel (LNE-LNHB), our approach uses a custom-developed suite of high-sensitivity techniques, including low-level gamma-ray spectrometry, liquid scintillation counting, and a purpose-built gas bench. This methodology is designed to characterise quantities of extraterrestrial material on the order of 1 gram.
Having validated our protocols using lunar analogues, we are currently applying this framework to a returned Chang’E 5 sample. We will present our methodology and discuss preliminary findings on the radioactive content and radon emanation fraction of this sample.
How to cite: Chacartegui Rojo, Í. D. L., Sabot, B., Girault, F., Meslin, P.-Y., Duprat, J., Jiang, T., and Li, J.: In the wake of DORN: a comprehensive lunar sample analysis for radon outgassing, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-7267, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-7267, 2026.
The Chang’e-5 (CE-5) mission returned the youngest known lunar mare materials (~2.0 Ga), providing critical constraints on late-stage lunar volcanism and enabling recalibration of lunar crater chronology. However, the returned samples from regolith and lithic fragments recorded the combined effects of impact gardening, cosmic-ray exposure, and multi-stage ejecta deposition. Thus, we investigate the stratigraphy, exposure history, and material sources of the CE-5 regolith core using cosmogenic isotopic signatures of Sm, Hf, and Cr. These isotope systems respond to distinct cosmic-ray processes, including neutron-capture and spallation, and thus provide complementary constraints on burial depth, regolith reworking, and exposure duration. Measurements of ε149Sm–ε150Sm, ε178Hf–ε180Hf, and ε53Cr–ε54Cr reveal that mass-independent Sm and Hf isotopic variations are dominated by neutron capture processes, whereas mass-independent Cr isotopic variations primarily reflect spallation reactions from Fe. The regolith core does not exhibit monotonic depth-dependent trends expected for static irradiation, indicating substantial post-depositional reworking. The rapid decrease of cosmogenic 53Cr in the subsurface of the CE-5 drill core, together with elevated cosmogenic 150Sm and 178Hf in both surface and subsurface samples, indicates that the CE-5 regolith comprises two distinct intervals: an surface layer dominated by reworked, previously irradiated ejecta derived from older regolith, and a subsurface layer largely sourced from relatively fresh Eratosthenian mare basalts excavated by an ancient impact. Numerical modeling incorporating cosmic-ray production rates and regolith gardening further constrains the formation of the subsurface regolith to an impact event at ~250 Ma. Our results reveal a complex, multi-stage accumulation history at the CE-5 landing site and underscore the need to integrate multiple cosmogenic isotope systems to constrain the material sources of the CE-5 basalts.
How to cite: Zhang, Y., Hu, J., Zhou, M., Liu, B., Li, S., Wang, Z., and Qin, L.: Cosmogenic isotopic evidence for multi-stage accumulation history of the Chang’e 5 regolith, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-16923, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-16923, 2026.
Mars is the core target for humans to achieve long-term extraterrestrial residence, and in-situ oxygen production technology, as the lifeline of material-life support for Martian bases, is a key variable determining the success or failure of Mars exploration missions.
Existing mainstream solutions, such as the electrochemical method (MOXIE device), high-temperature electrolysis method (solid oxide electrolyzer), and biological method, are all confronted with the dilemmas of efficiency limitations and poor environmental adaptability. Taking the currently most mature MOXIE device as an example, its oxygen production process requires additional consumption of a large amount of energy to maintain a pressurized and heated environment, with the heating and pressurizing power exceeding 200 W. Therefore, the characteristics of current Martian in-situ oxygen production equipment, such as high energy consumption and low energy utilization efficiency, still pose a huge challenge for future large-scale deep space exploration applications.
At present, mainstream oxygen production technologies share common bottlenecks in extraterrestrial scenarios, including low efficiency, high energy consumption, large volume, and stringent requirements for environmental conditions. These technical bottlenecks have severely restricted the scale and sustainability of deep space exploration.
To address the demand for efficient in-situ oxygen production from Martian CO₂, this study proposes a novel conversion technical route of "ECR low-temperature plasma + synergistic catalysis". We utilized a microwave source to generate 2.45 GHz microwaves, which were transmitted to a vacuum reaction chamber through a BJ-26 waveguide and a ceramic window, forming ECR plasma under the confinement of an 875 G magnetic field. Multi-component gas injection was adopted to synergize with CO₂ for atomic oxygen dissociation, and a high-efficiency microwave excitation system was applied to realize and maintain ultra-low-power CO₂ dissociation. A spectrometer was used to monitor characteristic spectral lines in real time, including atomic oxygen (777.2 nm) and carbon monoxide molecules (483.5 nm), and clear characteristic spectral lines of atomic oxygen were detected. In particular, we estimated the total energy consumed for oxygen generation via CO₂ dissociation and found that it accounted for more than half of the total microwave energy injected into the vacuum chamber, which verified the efficient conversion of carbon dioxide into oxygen. In addition, to improve the dissociation efficiency, Martian trace gases (Ar and N₂) were added. The results showed that trace amounts of Ar and N₂ were conducive to the dissociation and conversion of carbon dioxide.
How to cite: Sang, L. and Zhang, X.: Research on In-situ Oxygen Production Technology from Martian CO₂ Based on Microwave Plasma Discharge, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-16954, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-16954, 2026.
Water plays an important role in understanding the origin and evolution of the Moon, and is currently deemed as a potential in-situ resource for future lunar explorations. The newly returned samples collected by the Chang’e-5 (CE5) and -6 (CE6) missions provide precious opportunities to deepen the knowledge about the water of the Moon, from the interior to the surface and from the near side to the far side. The new return samples, CE5 and CE6 lunar soils, have an average grain size of ~50 μm with various components. The physical characteristics of these soil samples require an extremely high spatial-resolution analytical protocol for measuring the water content and hydrogen isotopes. NanoSIMS 50L is the best choice to carry out water and hydrogen isotope analyses for the tiny targets facilitated by the design of multi-collectors, nanometer beam sizes, and high vacuum quality. In this talk, we are going to present the novel soil sample preparation for NanoSIMS analysis, and the new knowledge of the Moon’s water learned from the new lunar return samples.
How to cite: Hu, S.: Knowledge of the Moon's water unraveled by the Chang'e lunar soils, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-16382, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-16382, 2026.
The abundance, distribution, and provenance of lunar water and volatiles represent fundamental scientific questions in contemporary lunar research. Investigating these factors is essential for understanding the complex processes of the Moon's formation and its subsequent evolutionary history. Furthermore, water ice within Permanently Shadowed Regions constitutes a strategic resource with considerable potential for future lunar exploration and in-situ resource utilization. The scientific objectives of the Chang’e-7 (CE-7) mission encompass the comprehensive detection and characterization of regolith-bound water ice and associated volatile components. Accordingly, this paper systematically presents the planned payload configurations and the corresponding exploration methodologies designed to achieve the scientific objective.
How to cite: Xue, C., Zhang, J., Liu, Y., Cao, N., He, H., Ling, Z., Ma, T., He, Z., Wang, Y., Zou, Y., and Wang, C.: Scientific Questions and Detection Methods of Water Ice at the Lunar Polar Regions, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-6470, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-6470, 2026.
Posters virtual: Mon, 4 May, 14:00–18:00 | vPoster spot 4
EGU26-9039 | ECS | Posters virtual | VPS27
Investigating Lunar Melt Viscosity via Deep Learning: A Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) ApproachMon, 04 May, 14:15–14:18 (CEST) vPoster spot 4
Viscosity is a fundamental physical parameter governing the generation, transport, and eruption of geological melts, dictating magma ascent rates, eruption styles, and the kinetics of physicochemical processes. On Earth, melts viscosities have been widely measured from various rock samples through high T-P (temperature & pressure) experiments, and a continuous viscosity-temperature-pressure (V-T-P) dependence can be obtained by different melt viscosity models. However, due to significant compositional differences, particularly in iron and titanium oxides between lunar and terrestrial basalts, no existing model can be simply used to predict magma viscosity on the Moon.
In this study, we have collected and trained on a comprehensive dataset of 28898 hand-curated melt measurements (compositions, pressure, temperatures and viscosity), including typical lunar melt types of ferrobasaltic melts, Apollo 15C green glass, Apollo 17 orange glass, Apollo 14 black glass, as well as synthetic high-titanium mare basalts and KREEP basalts. We have employed Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) to construct a deep learning model and established a relationship between lunar melt viscosity and its temperature, pressure, and composition (V-T-P-C). Unlike traditional Multi-Layer Perceptrons (MLPs), KANs utilize learnable spline functions rather than fixed activation functions. This architecture offers superior interpretability and generalization capabilities, making it particularly suitable for predicting viscosity under complex thermodynamic conditions.
The predicted rheological behavior of KREEP lunar silicate melts (Apollo samples) from KANs are well consistent with experimental measurements. Taking into account the compositions of basalts obtained from Chang’e 5 and 6 sampling, model suggests that the viscosity values ( Pa·s ) of young basalts (~2.0 Ga for Chang’e 5 and ~2.8 Ga for Chang’e 6) are ~2.5 orders of magnitude lower than that of relatively older Apollo-type basalts (>3.0 Ga) under the same T-P conditions.
How to cite: Chen, Y. and Huang, Q.: Investigating Lunar Melt Viscosity via Deep Learning: A Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) Approach, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-9039, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-9039, 2026.
EGU26-19711 | ECS | Posters virtual | VPS27
A Gravity Inversion Strategy for Accurate Resolution of Intra-Crustal Structures Accounting for Moho ReliefMon, 04 May, 14:18–14:21 (CEST) vPoster spot 4
The integration of gravity and topography data is a primary approach for investigating the crustal properties of terrestrial planets. While previous studies have extensively employed admittance analysis and gravity field models to estimate parameters like effective elastic thickness () and load density—particularly for Martian volcanic provinces—these methods often fail to resolve the detailed 3D distribution of subsurface structures.
Three-dimensional gravity inversion offers a powerful alternative for characterizing volcanic plumbing systems. However, existing applications often neglect the significant gravitational contribution of the crust-mantle interface (Moho relief) to Bouguer anomalies. Furthermore, as the spatial scale of investigation increases, the curvature of the planetary surface must be rigorously accounted for to avoid modeling errors.
To address these challenges, this study proposes an advanced 3D gravity inversion framework. We integrate the high-resolution MRO120F gravity model with recent crustal thickness models to isolate "residual" Bouguer anomalies that specifically reflect intra-crustal density variations. By incorporating spherical coordinate corrections and stripping the gravitational effects of the Moho, we reconstruct the 3D subsurface geological structure of a representative Martian volcanic region. Our results demonstrate that this refined inversion strategy significantly improves the resolution of magmatic features, providing new insights into the magmatic origins and evolutionary mechanisms of planetary volcanoes. In the future, we plan to apply this method to the geological structure analysis of the Tianwen landing area, providing a reference for subsequent Mars research plans. In the future, we plan to apply this method to the geological structure analysis of the Tianwen landing area, providing a reference for subsequent Mars research plans.
How to cite: He, Z., Cai, H., Huang, Q., and Hu, X.: A Gravity Inversion Strategy for Accurate Resolution of Intra-Crustal Structures Accounting for Moho Relief, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-19711, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-19711, 2026.
